What are human rights?

Human rights are the basic rights and freedoms to which every human being is naturally entitled, irrespective of their nationality, ethnicity, sex, religion, or any other status. They are what constitute dignity, equality, and well-being for all human beings and provide the basis for fairness, peace, and justice across the globe. Human rights are above local laws, cultural practices, and governmental systems, based on a universal standard of human dignity that advocates for protection against abuses and injustices.

Modern ideas of human rights really hail from the thinking that there are inalienable rights of humans by nature that cannot be removed, with limited exceptions like being imprisoned because of committing a crime. Also, human rights do not depend on any recognition from any government or entity. Generally, human rights can be divided into two groups:

- **Civil and Political Rights**: These are rights protecting individual freedom and ensuring participation in political life. Examples include the right to life, freedom of expression, freedom of assembly, the right to a fair trial, and the right to vote.

- **Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights**: These rights ensure access to essential aspects of life, namely, food, housing, education, and healthcare; similarly, the right to work, social security, and participation in cultural or social activities.

Human rights are not an invention of recent times. It took several centuries for the modern framework of understanding and claiming human rights to emerge, through philosophical, political, and legal developments:

- **Ancient and Religious Traditions**: Most religious and philosophical traditions have supported respect for persons and their dignity. As an example, the so-called **Cyrus Cylinder** (539 BCE) is very often presented as a kind of first declaration of human rights: the Persian king Cyrus the Great guaranteed freedom of religion and abolished the slavery of people. In the same vein, most religious texts, such as the **Ten Commandments** or the **Buddhist precepts**, insist on respect for other individuals and their rights.

- **The Enlightenment**: The Enlightenment era in the 17th and 18th centuries saw the maturation of human rights thinking. Thinkers like **John Locke**, **Jean-Jacques Rousseau**, and **Immanuel Kant** popularized the principle of natural rights — those that do not depend upon laws or positive governance. They argued that individuals are endowed with some rights because they are born as human beings, to life, liberty, and property.

- **The French and American Revolutions**: The American Declaration of Independence (1776) and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789) articulated in clear terms that all people were born with such human rights, including the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. These and other documents signaled political movements toward the protection of the rights of the individual.

- **The United Nations and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)**: The atrocities of World War II made the international community aware of the need for an internationally recognized standard on human rights. In 1948, the **Universal Declaration of Human Rights** (UDHR) was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly. The UDHR enumerates an elaborate set of rights and freedoms to which all human beings are entitled, and it has been a foundation of international human rights law.

 3. **Key Categories of Human Rights**

Human rights encompass a wide range of protections and entitlements. Some of the most recognized human rights include:

- **Right to Life**: This is perhaps the most basic human right, referring to the right of every human being to life and protection from arbitrary killing or harm. It's central to many human rights instruments and entails protection from violence, torture, or execution without due process.

- **Freedom from Torture and Inhumane Treatment**: This right protects individuals from cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment, such as physical or psychological torture.

- **Freedom of Expression**: Everyone has the right to hold opinions and express them freely without interference, retribution, or censorship. This includes freedom of speech, press, and peaceful assembly.

- **Freedom of Religion**: Every person has the right to practice, change, or express their religion or belief freely without coercion or discrimination.

- **Right to Education**: Education is a fundamental human right; it empowers individuals and contributes to the development of society. It includes access to primary, secondary, and higher education, as well as vocational and adult education.

- **Right to Work**: It consists of freedom to choose occupation, to receive fair remuneration, to have safety in employment. This right further includes freedom to form and join trade unions.

- **Right to Social Security**: A person has a right to social services that guarantee an optimum standard of living: medical aid, housing, and protection against poverty.

- **Right to Participate in Government**: Individuals have the right to participate in the political process, through voting, running for office, and access to political information. This helps make sure that governments remain accountable to the people.

- **Right to Privacy**: This right protects individuals against arbitrary interference in their private life, home, family, and correspondence. It covers protection against surveillance, collection of information, and other undue intrusion by the State or others.

While human rights have become universally acclaimed worldwide, their implementation and protection vary from one country to another. International human rights law aspires to provide a universal framework of protection, but challenges remain, particularly regarding the implementation of these rights at the national level.

- **International Covenants and Treaties**: The **Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)**, while a founding document, is not an instrument of binding law itself. It has inspired legally binding international treaties such as:

 - The **International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)**.

 - The **International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (ICESCR)**.

- The **Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD)**.

 - The **Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW)**.

 - The **Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC)**.

- **International Criminal Court (ICC)**: The Court was established to try the perpetrators of serious violations of international law, such as genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. The ICC punishes actors for actions that are recognized as violations of human rights at an international level.

- **Regional Human Rights Systems**: Complementing international mechanisms are regional human rights systems, like the **European Court of Human Rights** and the **Inter-American Court of Human Rights**, which allow individuals, under certain conditions, access to justice when their fundamental rights have been violated.

Despite the broad acceptance of human rights, formidable barriers persist in the path of safeguarding them. Some of the major concerns are:

- **State Sovereignty vs. International Intervention**: Many countries place national sovereignty above international human rights commitments. This has led to tensions when it comes to intervention in cases of human rights abuses, such as genocide, ethnic cleansing, or severe oppression.

- **Cultural Relativism**: It has been argued that the entire theory of human rights has a Western origin and should not be applied everywhere around the world, at least in non-Western cultures. This is debated as **cultural relativism**-whether the imposition of a universal standard of rights is appropriate for every cultural context.

- **Economic and Social Inequality**: Human rights are oftentimes weakened by mass poverty, inequality, and a lack of access to basic services. **Child labor**, **human trafficking**, and other forms of **discrimination** are still widely common throughout most of the world's developing countries.

- **Environmental Rights**: There is a growing constituency among human rights advocates for the inclusion of environmental rights since environmental degradation and climate change threaten basic human rights such as the right to clean air, water, and a safe living environment.

Human rights protect men, women, and children from various forms of oppression, exploitation, and violence and enable all individuals to make valuable contributions to the social, political, and economic life of their societies. The foundations of fair, just, and peaceful societies are protected by human rights, including international cooperation, mutual respect, and peaceful resolution of conflicts.

- **Empowerment**: Human rights equip individuals with the wherewithal to claim their dignity and pursue a life of freedom and fulfillment.

- **Social Stability and Peace**: Respect for human rights contributes to social cohesion and stability. It can prevent conflict by redressing the causes of injustice and inequality.

- **Progress and Development**: Human rights have to do with the economic, social, and cultural development of societies. When people are treated with dignity and given the opportunity for education, healthcare, and employment, they are better able to contribute to the progress of society.

 Conclusion

Human rights form the basis of a just society in which the essential freedom and protection of each individual are well guarded. While gains have been realized over centuries, many challenges remain to be faced in the full realization and universality of human rights. The struggle for human rights is a continuous process that requires vigilance, international cooperation, and sustained commitment from governments, organizations, and individuals to bring about dignity, equality, and justice to all people.