Understanding Basic Philosophical Terminology
Philosophy is the study of the nature of existence, knowledge, ethics, reason, and reality, among others, and it has been in existence for several millennia. The considerations in philosophy involve those vital questions about life, reality, or the universe. One is not likely to successfully understand the processes of doing philosophy without first being aware of some basic terms which act like the building blocks within this field. In this article, we look at some of these fundamental "philosophy basic words" and their meanings to help you better understand the core concepts and terminology in the field.
1. **Philosophy**
The word "philosophy" itself is derived from the Greek word "philosophia," which translates to "love of wisdom." It is the study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and existence. Philosophy is broad and can be divided into various branches, including metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, logic, and aesthetics.
- **Metaphysics**: Deals with questions about the nature of reality, such as what exists and what it means for something to exist.
- **Epistemology**: Deals with the nature and extent of knowledge, including how we come to know what we know.
- **Ethics**: The branch of study concerned with moral principles to discern good and bad.
- **Logic**: The study of valid reasoning, argument structure, and the rules governing inference.
- **Aesthetics**: Concerns the nature of beauty, art, and taste.
2. **Ontology**
Ontology is that aspect of metaphysics concerned with the nature of being or existence. It is concerned with questions such as: What does it mean for something to exist? What kinds of things exist-for example, physical objects, abstract concepts, or fictional entities? Ontology explores different categories of existence and how they relate to one another.
3. **Epistemology**
Epistemology, as previously discussed, is the study of knowledge. It questions how knowledge is attained, what knowledge is, and how one can differentiate between knowledge and belief. The main terms in epistemology include the following:
* **Justified True Belief (JTB)**: The classical definition of knowledge; this says that, for a person to know a thing, it has to be true, they must believe in it, and there needs to be justification for such belief.
- **Skepticism**: The doctrine that true knowledge of all or certain aspects of reality is uncertain, sometimes even impossible. The skeptic thus often questions whether we can know anything at all.
4. **Ethics**
Ethics is a consideration of moral values and principles. It addresses questions such as: What ought to be done? What is just? How is good and bad determined? Ethics is divided into:
- **Normative Ethics**: The study of moral principles that guide behavior, such as utilitarianism, deontology, virtue ethics.
- **Applied Ethics**: The application of ethical principles to real-world issues, for example, medical ethics and environmental ethics.
- **Metaethics**: Study of the nature of moral judgments, such as whether moral claims are objective or subjective.
5. **Logic**
Logic is the science of reasoning and argumentation. It deals with the principles of valid inference and the structure of statements. Logic is essential to tell sound arguments from unsound. The study of logic would include: - **Deductive Reasoning**: Reasoning that moves from general premises to a specific conclusion. Example: All humans are mortal, Socrates is human, so Socrates is mortal.
- **Inductive Reasoning**: Reasoning that moves from specific observations to general conclusions; for example, every swan I have seen is white, therefore all swans are white.
- **Fallacies**: Errors in reasoning that undermine the validity of an argument; for example, ad hominem attacks or false dichotomies.
6. **Argument**
In philosophy, an argument is a reasoned attempt to persuade someone of a conclusion. It consists of a set of premises that provide support for a particular claim or conclusion. Understanding the structure of arguments is crucial in philosophy as it helps us analyze whether an argument is valid, sound, or persuasive.
- **Premise**: A statement that provides support for the conclusion.
- **Conclusion**: The statement or claim which the argument is attempting to prove.
7. **Dualism**
In philosophy, especially in metaphysics and in the philosophy of mind, Dualism is the theory that there are two kinds of substances or realities. One of the most famous forms of dualism is **Cartesian dualism**, which was proposed by René Descartes. It is the view that the mind and the body are two different substances, a mental and a physical one, each with its own properties. Which immediately raises the question of how mind and body interact and what consciousness is exactly.
8. **Materialism**
Materialism is the counterpart of dualism, believing that everything in the universe consists of matter, and that all phenomena, including consciousness, are describable in terms of material processes. To materialists, the mind is not a separate entity but rather the creation of the operation of the brain. The possibility of whether materialism completely accounts for consciousness is a subject of significant debate within the current philosophy of mind.
9. **Free Will**
Free will describes the ability of a human being to make choices independently, with their decisions not being pre-ordained by earlier events or by God or supernatural factors. The debate about free will encompasses claims such as whether human conduct is molded by biology, environment, or society, or if humans are actually independent in making decisions. In general, free will can be contrasted with determinism, which is the belief that every event or state of affairs is the inevitable result of antecedent causes.
10. **Determinism**
Determinism is the philosophical idea that every event, including human actions, is determined by preceding events or natural laws. If determinism is true, it means that the future is already fixed by the past, which raises questions about human freedom and moral responsibility. There are various forms of determinism, including causal determinism (every event is caused by prior events) and logical determinism (future events are already true).
11. **Utilitarianism**
Utilitarianism is a normative theory of ethics, which says that the best action is that which produces the greatest amount of happiness or well-being. It is a form of **consequentialism**, meaning that the morality of an action depends on its outcomes. According to utilitarianism, people ought to act so as to produce the greatest good for the greatest number. The theory was famously developed by philosophers like Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill.
12. **Deontology**
The other form of normative ethics, deontology stresses the role of duties or rules. According to this ethics, some moral rules must be followed regardless of other considerations, such as consequences. A deontologist, for instance, may view lying as wrong even in circumstances that it yields a very good consequence. The most powerful argument in the field of deontological ethics has come from Immanuel Kant, who concluded that an action is moral inasmuch as it was performed in conformity with a universal moral law.
13. **Virtue Ethics**
Virtue ethics, associated with Aristotle, focuses on the character of the individual rather than on specific actions or consequences. According to virtue ethics, morality is about cultivating virtues—positive traits like courage, honesty, and kindness—that enable individuals to lead a flourishing life. Rather than asking, "What should I do?" virtue ethics asks, "What kind of person should I be?"
14. **Existentialism**
Existentialism: A philosophy that focuses on freedom of the individual, choice, and the meaning (or meaninglessness) of life. Existentialists believe that humans must take responsibility to create their own meaning in life, as the world itself may have no inherent meaning or could even be absurd. Important existentialist thinkers include Søren Kierkegaard, Friedrich Nietzsche, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Albert Camus.
15. **Nihilism**
Nihilism is a belief where life has no inherent meaning or value. It means that the existence in this world is senseless, and there are absolutely no objective moral values or any truths. Nihilism itself can be a response towards the themes of existentialism, particularly about life serving no preordained purpose of cosmic significance.
Conclusion
Philosophy uses special terms to address some of the deepest questions humans can ask about the nature of reality, knowledge, morality, and existence. The terms discussed here represent the basic concepts that every student of philosophy should know, as they form the basis for more advanced study and discussion. Whether you are investigating questions of a metaphysical nature, issues relating to ethics, or even the nature of consciousness, mastering these fundamental words will help you grasp this immense and fascinating realm of philosophy.
